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Hello, Welcome back to the Comm 122 podcast, My name is Max Gilles and I will be your host todayIn the last episode, we talked about the relationship between media and ideology. We left you with the thought that the media shape the dominant ideology of a society. You probably know that America is a pluralistic society, with diverse and sometimes clashing ideologies. Yes, media does produce and reproduce the dominant ideology of a society, but does media also produce, and promote fringe ideas or minority viewpoints? The answer is yes. In this episode, we will discuss how media functions as a public platform, like a town square, where citizens gather to debate public matters. There is a term for these discussion areas, they are called public spheres, used first by German philosopher Jürgen Habermas. There are many examples of media serving as the public sphere. Think about heated panel debates you see on cable news, and edgy discussions on social media. When Habermas coined the term, he was envisioning a rational citizenry acting in good faith. But in reality, people are irrational. Instead of rational and fair-minded deliberations, people bring emotions and biases to public discussions. We can all recall moments where disagreements turn into strained relationships. Media has become a place not for seeking dialogue, but an echo chamber where you see only what you want to see. Don't be discouraged just yet. There are still great media projects. I recommend three podcast shows that are modeled after the ideal version of a public sphere, in which show producers invite panelists with opposing viewpoints and debate with eloquence and substance. They are National Public Radio’s On Point, which is a call-in show produced by NPR’s Boston affiliate. BBC’s The Real Story, and the New York Times podcast called The Argument. You will find the shows in Apple iTunes, Spotify, Google Podcast, and wherever you find our COMM122 podcast. There isn’t just one public sphere but many. First, there is the mainstream public sphere where mainstream ideas are exchanged. The mainstream public sphere won’t include all voices in society. Back in time, the idea of abstaining from the use of animal products was quite a fringe idea, and wouldn't have been taken seriously in the mainstream public sphere. That, of course, is a different story now. Historically, some voices are systematically excluded or marginalized due to structural inequality that exists in society. For example, African Americans, along with immigrants, refugees, sexual minorities, and the working poor, has been somewhat marginalized from the mainstream public sphere. The lack of representation is a serious issue in our time that champions diversity and inclusion. Okay, what do you do if you are marginalized but want to have your voice heard? You do it through media. You create your own public sphere, called a counter-public sphere. It is counter because it stands in opposition to the mainstream and dominant public sphere. Here are some examples, back in the 1960s, during the civil rights movement, African Americans created their own media promoting their own viewpoints, to challenge the mainstream narrative. Nowadays, you will find niche media for historically marginalized groups and political fringe groups. Do you know Anonymous Media? It is a media outlet created by Anonymous, which is a loosely associated activist group, engaged in politically motivated hacking and cyberattacks. Have you heard of Naked Food. It is a magazine created by vegans, to promote veganism. Both are examples of counter-public spheres, consisting of like-minded communities, that spread alternative ideologies.As discussed in class, counter-public spheres have taken an alarming turn. Conspiracy theorists and white supremacists have carved out their own media space to propagate th